Archive for the ‘History’ Category:
History of Racism – Is Racism a new Concept?
How did racism originate? Where did it begin? Where is it headed? The history of racism or rather the earliest examples of racism that still exist today is the caste system that is practiced in India. This form of racism dates back to 1500 BC and is embedded in the Hindu religion. The racism involves the fair-skinned Brahmins who rule over the dark-skinned population. The Brahmins are further divided into hierarchical classes with the lowest being the Dalits. The extremity of the caste system is shown by the fact that the very sight or touch of the ‘untouchables’ by those of the ‘higher order’ is regarded as pollution. Considered inferior, the Dalits or the untouchables are the lowest in the caste system. They were not even permeated to enter the Hindu temples for worship and in time they came to accept this way of thinking even perpetuating the Hindu Casteism and sexism in the community and in the family circles.
The history of racism is also seen in ancient Egypt. They were known to distinguish groups according to their ethnicities with the dark-skinned Nubians residing in the southern regions of the Nile. In fact, it is possible that the Egyptians may have been responsible for the death of the red-headed people whom they saw as symbols of evil of the Egyptian god Seth. After reading an inscription on one of the tombs, the 13th Century Jean-Francois Champollion the Younger wrote: “According to the legend…they wished to represent the inhabitants of Egypt and those of foreign lands. Thus we have before our eyes the image of the various races of man known to the Egyptians… the last one is what we call flesh-colored, a white skin of the most delicate shade, a nose straight or slightly arched, blue eyes, blond or reddish beard, tall stature and very slender, clad in a hairy ox-skin, a veritable savage… he is called Tamhou…. I certainly did not expect, on arriving at Biban-el-Moluk, to find sculptures that could serve as vignettes of the history of the primitive Europeans, if ever one has the courage to attempt it. Nevertheless, there is something flattering and consoling in seeing them, since they make us appreciate the progress we have subsequently achieved.”
Another infamous people in the history of racism are that of the ancient Greece ad Rome. Ancient Greeks recognized differences in people just like the ancient Egyptians and even the historian Herodotus who lived in the years 484-425 B.C. seems to refer to black-skinned people as Aethiopian or ‘burnt-faced’ in Greek. He seems to have thought of the differences in human phenotypes as a result of adaptations due to the differing environments. The Greek seem to have had a very unfavorable view of their neighboring nations. The word ‘barbarian’ comes from the Greek word meaning ‘non-Greek’ and it referred to those not participating to the refinement and the enlightenment of Greek culture. According to the book, History of the Goths, by Herwig Wolfram, “Barbarians can neither think nor act rationally, theological controversies are Greek to them… Under the assault of their horrible songs the classic meter of the ancient poet goes to pieces…Barbarians are driven by evil spirits; “possessed by demons”, who force them to commit the most terrible acts…incapable of living according to written laws and only reluctantly tolerating kings…Their lust for gold is immense, their love of drink boundless. Barbarians are without restraint…Although generally they are considered good-looking, they are given to gross personal hygiene…They run dirty and barefoot, even in the winter…They grease their blond hair with butter and care not that it smells rancid…Their reproductive energy is inexhaustible; the Northern climate of their native land, with its long winter nights favors their fantastic urge to procreate…If a barbarian people is driven back or destroyed, another already emerges from the marshes and forests of Germany…Indeed, there are no new barbarian peoples–descendents of the same tribes keep appearing.” Indeed, the history of racism should be a lesson to present-day nations and its effects should teach us that all have something to contribute to overall advancement of human societies.
United States history, in a nutshell
United States history properly begins with the landing of Juan Ponce de Leon, who landed in Florida in 1513. While Christopher Columbus is often credited with discovering the United States, but he did not make landfall in any U.S. state, but in Puerto Rico. We are not certain if John Cabot landed in New England in 1498, so Ponce de Leon must be given credit for discovering the continental U.S.
United States history began with the establishment and consolidation of thirteen British colonies along the eastern coast of the continent, beginning in 1607. The United States was not born, however, until these thirteen colonies revolted against the British throne, winning freedom by the American Revolutionary War. From these thirteen colonies came the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution, which was ratified by the thirteen colonies in 1781.
Beginning in the eighteen hundreds, the United States began its expansion into the
continent. They maintained a ‘manifest destiny’ mindset, in which the United States was apparently destined to extend its sovereignty from the east coast to the west. This expansion, called the Westward Expansion, occurred between 1789 to 1849 when California became a state.
A new and deadly era began when gold was discovered in California. This lead to a population explosion in California and its admission into the United States. Slavery was the principle issue at the time, and with the admission of California as a free state, the balance of power in U.S. government was thrown off balance. Pro-slavery factions were in the minority. Although compromises were made, and balances were achieved and then upset, the people were unable to keep the union together in the face of the issue of slavery. By 1861, eleven southern states seceded from the Union, thereby eventuating the American Civil War. This war was settled in 1865, the Union winning over the southern Confederacy. Slavery was abolished in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
During the period of United States history, between the 1890s to the 1920s, the country solidified its economic, political, social and moral character, in the midst of vast technological and economic developments. This era was called the ‘Progressive Era’ in United States history, due to all the progress made in these areas. Women won the right to vote. Direct elections of Senators became law. New election methods were established and political corruption was arrested. The government, viewed as a caring uncle, became the vogue.
The Progressive Era of United States history saw an increase in economic prosperity that came to an abrupt end with the the 1929 Wall Street Crash. This was followed by the Great Depression, a time when most Americans lived in poverty. Between 1929 and 1945, efforts were made to overcome rampant poverty, but war ended it when, in 1941, the U.S. entered into World War II and the subsequent Cold War, with the Soviet Union on one side and the United States and its allies on the other. These eras saw both great bloodshed and great technological advances in space science and automated systems. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought these eras to an end.
A new phase in United States history began on September 11, 2001, when two passenger planes were driven into the Twin Towers in New York City. The United States blamed a terrorist organization and entered into the present day global conflict, its fight on terrorism. In 2007-8, a downturn in the economy has worsened and now threatens a return to a new Great Depression, but on a global scale not seen before. We can only hope that United States history books, yet to be written, will contain references to another return to prosperity and hopefully, peace.
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Tags: united states history
The 1789 French revolution
The French revolution in 1789 is considered one of the great turning points in the history of the western world. In many ways it was inspired by the American Revolution that began thirteen years previous, but its repercussions were far more wide-ranging and spectacular. In many ways, the 1789 french revolution changed the fate of the western world, laying the ground for the crumbling of the staid monarchical traditions of old Europe and paving the way for the industrial revolution and democratization of the continent and, as a result, much of the rest of the world.
The 1789 French revolution is significant because it marked the first time a European people revolted and successfully overthrew a sitting monarch with the goal of permanently replacing the monarchy. Previous revolutions had had more the shape, scope and ideals of a civil war with one faction fighting another for power. What made the 1789 french revolution different was that it was a war of ideas and ideals, something previously unseen and unimagined.
As for the causes and ideals, Wikipedia has an extensive look at the 1789 french revolution and lists them thusly:
There were also social and political factors, many of which involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal absolutism; resentment by the ambitious professional and mercantile classes towards noble privileges and dominance in public life, as many of these classes were familiar with the lives of their peers in commercial cities in the Netherlands and Great Britain; resentment by peasants, wage-earners, and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by nobles; resentment of clerical advantage (anti-clericalism) and aspirations for freedom of religion, resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy, continued hatred for Catholic control, and influence on institutions of all kinds by the large Protestant minorities; aspirations for liberty and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism; and anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker and A.R.J. Turgot (among other financial advisors), who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.
All of the above was exacerbated by France’s staggering national debt at the time, a subsistence crisis in which many of the country’s poor were starving, and of course Louis XVI’s total inability and unwillingness to address any of those concerns.
While those who revolted were in many ways justified in doing so, it’s important to remember that the French revolution in 1789 didn’t create the democratic meritocracy many of the protagonists hoped for, but rather an even more oppressive dictatorship led by Napoleon Buonoparte.
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